The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Introduction

                The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus is not the most famous of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World – yet it is the one most often referenced in day-to-day speech. For it is from the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, also known as the Tomb of Mausolus, that we derive the English word “mausoleum,” meaning “a stone building with places for the dead bodies of several people or the body of an important person.”

The People

                The actual man who gave the Mausoleum its name was named Mausolus.[1] The word “mausoleum” originally meant “in honor of Mausolus.” He became a satrap in 377 B.C. over the kingdom of Caria following the death of his father, and made Halicarnassus his capital. Caria, in Asia Minor, was on the western side of Turkey, and Halicarnassus was on the coast. Mausolus was a huge fan of Greek culture and design. He spoke Greek and the cities he founded often had a distinctly Greek design.

                Mausolus’ wife was named Artemisia[2] and she was his sister as well as his wife. Together, they spent enormous amounts of tax money on beautifying the city of Halicarnassus, putting up statues, temples, multiple marble buildings, and a magnificent palace.

                When Mausolus died in 353 B.C.,[3] Artemisia was heart-broken and inconsolable. We do not know whether it was her or Mausolus who actually commissioned the building of the tomb, but once he died, Artemisia spared no expense. She was ruler in his place, but ruled for only two years before her death. Her remains were interred with his in the mausoleum.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

                The mausoleum was built with Scopas as the planner. He was the man who also had a major part in the building of another Wonder of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Whether it was Mausolus or Artemisia who commissioned him is not known. But the fact remains – he was the best to be had. The Mausoleum incorporated three styles – Egyptian, Greek, and Lycian. The Greek and Egyptian are especially obvious to the casual observer, as we will discover.

                It was built on the top of a hill, overlooking the water and the city. The rock on which it stood was excavated to a depth of 8-9 feet before it was built, over the entire area over which it stood. At the top of the hill, there was an enclosed courtyard in the center of which stood this building. An impressive staircase led up into the courtyard, bordered by 24 stone lions. 

This author had some trouble finding the actual exact measurements of the building – though the confusion is natural, due to the fact that it is impossible to ascertain them with precision. The mausoleum was shaped like a rectangle. One source said that it was 63 feet long, but it was unclear about which side was 63 feet. Another stated that the perimeter was 400 feet – whether this number was merely of the mausoleum or of the courtyard is not said. Either way, it was a significant structure.

The exact height is also difficult to discover. From her research, this author is inclined to believe that it was about 147 feet tall.[4] It was built from bricks covered in marble, with a variety of styles. The sub-structure and first part of the mausoleum tapered up mildly, comprising the first 1/3 of the building. This part was covered on each side by base reliefs of action scenes from history, including pictures of Greeks fighting Amazon women. Four of the best sculptors of the time had been commissioned to do these reliefs, one for each side. They were Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas of Paros, and Timotheus.[5] These sculptors did a beautiful job, and parts of their carvings have remained to the present day.

That section was topped by the next 1/3 of the building. It was notable for having 36 columns – 10 on each side, with the corners sharing. This was the most Grecian section of the building. It is likely that statues also decorated this level.

The top and final 1/3 of the mausoleum was the Egyptian section, a pyramidal roof. It was comprised of 24 steps, similar to a stepped pyramid. And that, in turn, was topped by what one writer called the “penultimate work of sculpture” – four horses pulling a chariot with two figures standing in it. These figures were modeled after Mausolus and Artemisia. The stone wheels were over six feet in diameter, and the chariot was made of bronze. 

It is likely that this amazing mausoleum was finished in approximately 350 B.C. Artemisia died in 351 B.C., two years after the passing of her husband. However, the sculptors and workers who were currently working on the tomb decided to finish it anyway. Whether they chose to do this out of love for Mausolus and Artemisia or out of reverence for the beauty of what they were doing is unknown.

After their deaths, Mausolus and Artemisia were buried in the tomb. It is likely that their bodies were cremated and it was their urns placed inside. However, it could have been coffins – we do not know for sure. The stairs into the burial chamber were filled with rubble and stone, making future entrance impossible.

The Later History of the Mausoleum

                The mausoleum was a long-lasting testament to the work of its builders. It stood for 16 or 17 centuries, towering over the city of Halicarnassus. Many people came to see it through the years. It stood unharmed as Alexander the Great conquered the city in 334 B.C. Pirate attacks in 62 B.C. and 58 B.C. brought no damage to it either. 

                There are no records of the mausoleum throughout the New Testament era. It is not entirely illogical to wonder if perhaps Paul, in his many travels, passed through Halicarnassus and possibly saw this building. If he did indeed pass through the city, we can be reasonably certain that he would have seen it, due to how it presided over everything.

 In the AD 12^th century, however, Eustathius (an ancient author) mentions it as a Wonder and as if it was still standing at the time. However, shortly thereafter, a series of earthquakes brought the mausoleum down. One source stated that it fell in AD 1304, which is certainly a possible date. By AD 1404,[6] only the base remained.

Knights of St. John of Jerusalem arrived in the area in AD 1402 and recorded definitely at that time that the mausoleum was in shambles. However, they were able to take some of the carvings from the mausoleum to use in a stone castle that they built. The stones could be clearly seen from 1494-1846.[7]

Discovery

                Charles Newton is credited with the official discovery of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The dates given for this discovery vary - one source claimed it was in 1846, another claimed 1852. Whichever it was, in the mid-1800s, Newton definitively discovered the tomb. The British government followed up by commissioning an exploration three years later. This exploration brought back a great deal of the marble to Britain, where it was put in the Mausoleum Room of the British Museum.

                Sadly, no bodies or urns were found in the tomb. It had been plundered in antiquity. However, 20 lions of the 24 who bordered the steps were discovered, some of them in almost perfect condition. These also reside in the British Museum. 

                In 1972, there was still enough of the tomb left, despite the raiders of antiquity, to be able to map out the layout of the underground burial chamber. Even now, some of the stones used in the castle can be seen.

                The construction of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus influenced many buildings after its discovery. While it has never been perfectly mapped out, due to a lack of records, several buildings were built modeling it. The most significant, perhaps, was Grant’s Tomb. But the greatest nod to this Wonder is the now popular definition of the word “mausoleum.”

Conclusion

                The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was a beautiful structure. That is the reason that Antipater of Sidon chose to include it in his list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. While the other wonders were stunning in magnitude, this one was beautiful. Antipater called it an “aesthetic triumph.” It was an architectural wonder.[8]

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[1] Alternate spellings include, but are not limited to: Maussolus, Maussollos, and Mausolos.

[2] Alternatively, one source referred to her merely as Artemis.

[3] One source said 355 B.C., but since many referred to 353 B.C., that is the likely date.

[4] Other sources claimed measurements including 135 feet (unreasonably low), 140 feet, 141 feet, and 148 feet.

[5] Alternatively “Timotheos.”

[6] One source said AD 1401.

[7] Another source said that the marble carvings were taken around AD 1522.

[8] Joseph J. Johnson supplied the final word.

Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa

Introduction

                The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa have been categorized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Medieval World. They are comparable to the pyramids in awe inspiring quality, but since they are mostly underground, they are not nearly as well known. However, they are a complex and interesting topic to study.

Name, Style, and History

                The name “Kom el Shoqafa” can be literally translated as “Mound of Shards” or “Potsherds.” It was called this because the entire area was a necropolis. A necropolis is a large, ancient cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. Kom el Shoqafa stood in the vicinity of a major necropolis outside western Alexandria, Egypt. It was given its name because the area had previously featured a large mound of terra cotta shards, mostly from jars. These had been smashed by the families of dead people who brought them with food or liquids to the area, but did not want to take home containers brought to a place of death.

                The Alexandrian tombs of the area, including this catacomb, were filled with statues and various archaeological objects. The Catacomb of Kom el Shoqafa had primarily Hellenistic and early Imperial Roman influences. Some parts of it merged Roman, Greek, and Egyptian design. For example, some statues were carved in an Egyptian style, but wearing Roman clothing. 

                The builders of the catacombs built it in either the late first century AD or the early second century. It was used consistently for burials from the second to the fourth centuries. The catacombs were tunneled down into bedrock for approximately 100 feet. At first, the tomb was built for only one family, but eventually it was expanded to hold many more bodies. The precise reasoning for this is not known, but it is possible that a corporation of sorts bought it and the members paid regular dues. It is logical to assume that as a return for these dues, they would be buried in the catacombs upon their deaths. One cult was especially involved in these types of burial. Mentioned only as the Pharaoh Cult in the sources encountered, they believed in re-birth. Hence, the bodies had to be preserved to make this re-birth possible.

Description of the Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa

                One of the most interesting features of the catacombs was a circular staircase. Imagine the classic tower from princess fairy tales. If this staircase was part of one of those towers, however, it wouldn’t on the inside – it would trace around the outside. There were 99 steps. The hollowed center of the staircase was possibly used for lowering bodies into the catacombs with a rope and pulley system. It consisted within the catacombs as a six-pillared shaft that was 18 feet wide.

                The catacombs had three levels. Each of them was cut through solid rock. The third level is now filled with water and infiltrated, because of the water, with sand. However, the other levels can be toured by the modern tourist.

                Within the second level, three sarcophagi were found. The sarcophagi had un-removable covers. It is believed that bodies were inserted into them from the hallway behind. They were decorated with flowers, gods, and various scenes. The hallway surrounding the central burial chamber had 91” deep walls. These walls were carved with a total of 91 niches, or wall sarcophagi. Each of these, in turn, could hold three mummies. 

                The second level could be accessed by a stone staircase. It had a lobby with two pillars that were beautifully carved. The first level included a triclinium, also known as a funeral banquet hall. The table is surrounded by stone benches that, when the hall was used, were covered with cushions to provide comfort for the family and friends.

                It is thought that there was probably a funerary chapel on the surface, but any trace of it has long since disappeared. However, it is sensible to assume that any funeral held in the catacombs would have been an impressive event, probably only attended by the rich.

Discovery

                The catacombs fell into disuse after the fourth century AD. Eventually, their location was forgotten, and they were lost. Yet the legend remained, and in 1892, archaeologists began to search for the tombs once again.

                They were found on September 28, 1900 – by accident. The exact way is debated. The most likely way is man named Said Ali Jibarah[1] who was quarrying and accidentally broke into the catacombs. However, the popularly accepted story (that is likely a myth) is that a donkey fell into the access shaft. Whether or not this donkey lived is never mentioned.

                The tombs were not open publicly at the time, however. In fact, it was not until 1995 that they opened to the general people. Sub soil water had to be pumped from level two as well. Level three remains mostly under water to this day. 

 Conclusion

                The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa are an impressive nod to man’s ingenuity, and are not nearly as well-known as they should be. They truly deserve to be one of the Wonders of the Medieval World.

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[1] Or Es-Sayed Aly Gibarah, according to another source.

Zeus Statue at Olympia

Introduction

                What was the Zeus Statue at Olympia and why was it included as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World? It is listed as the fourth oldest and also the smallest of the Seven. However, it was impressive in its own right. One ancient author stated that while the other wonders were indeed wonders, this was the only one that inspired awe. This paper will seek to enlighten the reader on what exactly the Zeus statue was and its appearance.

The Beginning of the Zeus Statue

                The Zeus statue was built by Phidias[1] in the middle of the 400s B.C. This has been confirmed by the discovery of Phidias’ workshop, similar in size to the Temple of Zeus in which the statue stood. Materials have been excavated at this workshop that were used in the building of the statue. Zeus was the king of the gods, and worshipped greatly in Greek culture. He was also the king over the Olympics. These were held regularly in Olympia, Greece –near the Temple of Zeus where the statue presided. Olympia stood on the west coast of Greece.

Sources vary about the amount of time needed to complete the statue. It was somewhere between eight and 15 years. This author is inclined to believe from her research that it took him about 12 years. As the insightful reader may have deduced, there is a great deal of debate about the date of completion for the Zeus statue. The most popular date on the internet appears to be 435 B.C. The earliest dates I found were 460 B.C. and 457 B.C. – these are highly improbable. One source suggested that it was built from 432-420 B.C., dates that are disturbingly late. Another argued for 450-442 B.C. A third suggested that Phidias designed the statue in 450 B.C., but that it was actually completed in 435 B.C. Suffice to say that the modern enthusiast cannot be entirely certain of a completion date. 

Description

                The Zeus statue was seated in the entry to the Zeus Temple in Olympia. Its height is also a matter of debate on the internet. This author’s research leads her to believe it was somewhere between 40 and 43 feet. The shortest estimate encountered said it was 36 feet; the tallest said 50. One suggested that the statue itself was 39 feet, with a seven foot base to contribute. Whatever the exact height was, it came to about the size of a four-story building. At the bottom, it was 20-22 feet wide, filling half the width of the aisle that held it.

                Zeus was made in the chryselephantine method. This means that Phidias built a wooden frame, over which he laid softened slabs of ivory (which molded together perfectly so the seams were hardly visible) and gold leaf. The ivory was Zeus’ skin, and was carefully carved as such. The gold leaf was used for his hair, eyes, jewelry, and weaponry. Semi-precious stones were also used to embellish. His sandals were gold, as was his robe – the latter was carved with animals and lilies. On Zeus’ head sat a wreath of olive sprays. His right hand held a small statue of Nike (his messenger and the god of victory). His left hand embraced a scepter inset with many metals and topped with an eagle.

                Zeus sat on a throne made primarily of gold and precious stones along with ebony and ivory. These were all laid over cedar. The legs of the throne were decorated with sphinxes and winged figures of victory.

                Around the statue was a pool of oil and water. It had a use, which shall be discussed shortly, but it is also more than possible that it reflected sunlight back onto the statue, making it even more brilliantly blinding than it already was.

                The details about the physical attributes of the Zeus statue are known merely from coins and descriptions written by ancient authors. No part of the statue itself, nor any replica, has been found.

The Life of the Zeus Statue

                The statue stood in all its glory for over 800 years. One source (counting on a removal to Constantinople in AD 392) pins it down to 827, but an exact number is impossible to ascertain. Zeus was treated regularly with oil to maintain the ivory and keep the wood from deterioration.[2]

                Visitors were awed by the size and features of the statue. Many said that if Zeus were suddenly to come to life and stand up, he would “unroof the temple.”[3] It was one of the most successful tourist attractions in the area for understandable reasons. One of the notable features was the eyes, which have been termed penetrating.

                Sometime during the first century AD, the emperor Caligula attempted to move the statue to his own city. However, all his scaffolding fell down and the attempt was given up. In 170 B.C., an earthquake struck Olympia, resulting in some damage to the statue. However, it was repaired and continued to stand. It is possible that some harm was done to the statue late in the second century AD – some writings insinuate this, but nothing is definite. We do know for sure that in the early fourth century AD, all the gold was stripped from the statue. And in AD 391, the Temple of Zeus was closed. But what happened to the statue? From here, it becomes a little hard to tell.

Destruction of the Statue

                Several options have been suggested for what exactly happened the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, but none has been yet conclusively proven. This paper will take a quick look at three. The one thing we do know for sure is that the statue was destroyed in the fifth century AD.

                The first option was only suggested in one of the dozens of sources used, and is highly unlikely. It is suggested that a meteor came and hit the statue. This theory may be almost certainly ruled out, as such a catastrophic event would probably be well recorded.

                The second option suggests that Zeus remained in the temple and was burnt, along with the temple, in AD 425. This seems a valid solution, as moving the statue would be exceedingly difficult.

                However, the third option seems to possess the most internet popularity. This is the option that suggests the statue was moved to Constantinople (sometime between AD 392 and 394) and was there for many years, until the city was swept by a fire. The most likely date in this author’s opinion is AD 462, but the modern reader cannot know for sure. [4]

                Whatever happened, the statue was utterly destroyed. As has been previously mentioned, no remains have been found from the statue itself. In Phidias’ workshop, archaeologists found the tools and a few of the materials used for the statue. However, neither Zeus nor any models have been discovered to date. All that remains of the Temple of Zeus is the foundation and a few fallen columns. 

Conclusion

                The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was an impressive structure, and it is easy to understand why it was chosen as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It inspired awe and no doubt brought much commerce to Olympia. However, it was not immortal and is entirely gone.

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[1] Alternative spelling: “Pheidias.”

[2] This oil came from the pool surrounding the statue.

[3] It is believed that his head was less than three feet from the roof of the temple.

[4] Suggested dates include AD 462, 464, 475, and 532. The last is highly unlikely due to its lateness.